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Demystifying Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and ICOs
Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. The speed of writing of state-of-the-art ferromagnetic memories is physically limited by an intrinsic gigahertz threshold. Recently, realization of memory devices based on antiferromagnets, in which spin directions periodically alternate from one atomic lattice site to the next has moved research in an alternative direction.
We experimentally demonstrate at room temperature that the speed of reversible electrical writing in a memory device can be scaled up to terahertz using an antiferromagnet. A current-induced spin-torque mechanism is responsible for the switching in our memory devices throughout the order-of-magnitude range of writing speeds from hertz to terahertz. Our work opens the path toward the development of memory-logic technology reaching the elusive terahertz band.
One of the unresolved fundamental problems in spintronics is the electrical writing speed. Regardless of whether one is using Oersted fields or advanced two-terminal spin-transfer torque or three-terminal spin-orbit torque device geometries 1 — 3 , 5 — 11 , the writing speed has a physical limit in ferromagnetic memories in the gigahertz range, beyond which it becomes prohibitively energy-costly 9 — The interest in antiferromagnetic memories is driven by the vision of ultrafast operation far exceeding the gigahertz range Recently, terahertz writing speed has become a realistic prospect with the experimental discovery 14 of the electrical switching in the CuMnAs antiferromagnet by a staggered spin-torque field 15 under ambient conditions.
This was followed by upscaling of the experimental writing speed to the gigahertz range and by demonstration of a fabrication compatibility with III-V semiconductors or Si and a device compatibility with common microelectronic circuitry These initial experiments verified several unique features of antiferromagnetic bit cells, including their magnetic field hardness, absence of fringing stray fields, and neuron-like multilevel memory-logic functionality 14 , 16 , Four-terminal devices delivering orthogonal, current polarity—independent writing pulses have been demonstrated 16 as well as switching controlled by the polarity of the writing current that, in principle, enables the construction of two-terminal devices Current-induced switching has also been replicated already in another suitable antiferromagnet, Mn 2 Au 19 , However, the envisaged terahertz electrical writing speed 13 , 15 , 17 , 21 in antiferromagnetic memories has not been experimentally demonstrated before this work.
The principle of the reversible current-driven antiferromagnetic switching is illustrated in Fig. The Mn spin sublattices with opposite magnetic moments occupy noncentrosymmetric crystal sites that are inversion partners.
The local symmetry properties of the lattice, together with the spin-orbit coupling, imply that a global electrical current driven through the crystal generates local, oppositely oriented carrier spin polarizations at the inversion partner sites 14 , 15 , This alternating nonequilibrium polarization acts as an effective staggered magnetic field on the antiferromagnetic moments.
The strength of the staggered field is proportional to the current-induced polarization and to the exchange coupling between the carrier spins and the antiferromagnetic moments 14 , 15 , The staggered field axis and, therefore, the switching direction are controlled by the direction of the writing current.
In CuMnAs, the field and current are perpendicular to each other. The physics is analogous to the highly efficient spin-orbit torque switching mechanism in ferromagnets 6 — 8 whose writing speed is, however, limited by the gigahertz threshold A Schematics of the crystal and magnetic structure of the CuMnAs antiferromagnet in which the two opposite magnetic sublattices occupy inversion partner Mn sites.
A uniform electrical current black dashed arrow generates a nonequilibrium spin polarization of carriers black electron symbols with spin arrows with opposite sign at inversion partner Mn sites. B Reversible switching is achieved by applying the writing current in the orthogonal direction. C Electron microscopy image of the Au contact pads light regions of the device. Light regions are the apexes of Au contact pads, gray regions are etched down to the GaAs substrate, and black regions are CuMnAs.
To establish the feasibility of extending the writing speed in antiferromagnets to the terahertz band, we compare our ultrashort writing pulse experiments to the results obtained with longer writing pulses in the same device structure. Electron micrographs of the device are shown in Fig. Apart from the reversible switching controlled by alternating the two orthogonal writing currents, earlier studies have also shown that multiple pulses can be applied successively along one writing path, revealing neuron-like multilevel switching characteristics naturally occurring in antiferromagnetic microstructures 14 , 16 , 24 , This has been associated with multidomain reconfigurations 26 , and we will exploit the feature also in our picosecond pulse experiments described below.
A Electron microscopy image of the cross-shape bit cell and schematics of the reversible writing by electrical pulses of two orthogonal current directions delivered via wire-bonded contacts. B Waveform of the applied microsecond electrical pulses. C Schematics of the reversible writing by terahertz electric field transients whose linear polarization can be chosen along two orthogonal directions.
D Waveform of the applied picosecond radiation pulses. However, as shown in Fig. The waveform of the incident electric field transient is plotted in Fig. Here, the readout current direction is depicted by a white dashed line on the electron microscopy image of the cell. A Reversible multilevel switching by s trains of microsecond electrical pulses with a hertz pulse repetition rate, delivered via wire-bonded contacts along two orthogonal directions. The applied writing current density in the 3.
Intervals with the pulse trains turned on are highlighted in gray, and the two orthogonal current directions of the trains alternate from one interval to the next. Electrical readout is performed at a 1-Hz rate. Right insets show schematics of the transverse AMR readout. White dashed lines depict readout current paths. B Same as A for picosecond pulses with a kilohertz pulse repetition rate.
Electrical readout is performed at an 8-Hz rate. To confirm the AMR symmetry, we use two electrical detection geometries in which we interchanged the readout current and transverse voltage axes see Fig.
For the AMR, the readout signal flips sign between the two geometries Note that the AMR readout signal in these experiments does not depend on the polarity of the writing current. We also apply a bipolar waveform of the writing pulses in the contact setup to explicitly highlight the correspondence to the noncontact, picosecond pulse measurements see Fig.
All experiments are performed at room temperature. In Fig. These were delivered by the contact method in a bit cell fabricated from a nm-thick CuMnAs film deposited on an insulating GaAs substrate.
The pulse train of one current direction is turned on for 30 s, and then the train is turned off for 30 s, followed by turning on for 30 s the pulse train with the orthogonal current direction. The data show the phenomenology attributed in the earlier studies to the multilevel switching of the antiferromagnet by the current-induced staggered spin-orbit field 14 , The readout signal increases as the successive pulses within a train arrive at the bit cell.
The trend reverses when applying the pulse train with the orthogonal current direction, and the overall sign of these reversible switching traces flips between the two readout geometries, consistent with the AMR symmetry. Note that the readout signal in Fig. In the Supplementary Materials, we show that no relaxation is observed in this CuMnAs structure when slightly lowering the temperature to K. In general, the stability of the switching signal can be broadly varied by changing the CuMnAs structure parameters 16 ; examples of stable retention at room temperature in CuMnAs are reported by Wadley et al.
Data in Fig. Wadley et al. Remarkably, analogous reversible switching traces, with an initial steep increase of the AMR signal followed by a tendency to saturate, can be written in the same CuMnAs memory cell structure by picosecond pulses, as shown in Fig. See below for a detailed discussion of the E to j conversion. The correspondence between the measured data in Fig. Note that this switching mechanism allows us to use the electric field transient and that we do not rely on the weak magnetic field component of the radiation 28 or on nonlinear orbital transition effects Performing a measurement with an isolated single pulse was not feasible in our terahertz setup.
However, we emphasize that the writing pulse repetition rate in Fig. We also point out that at the millisecond or longer range of delays between writing pulses, the change of the signal due to the subsequent pulse in the train is not affected by transient heating effects of the previous pulse and is independent of the delay time The measured data plotted as a function of the pulse number are shown in Fig.
We observe that the initial picosecond pulse accounts for a sizable portion of the total signal generated by the pulse train. Note that the scatter in the measured data is likely of an instrumental origin because of the electrical noise from the laser setup and fluctuations of laser power and beam pointing. A The multilevel memory signal as a function of the number of applied picosecond pulses.
The electrical current density generated in our CuMnAs memory cells for a given incident terahertz field could not be directly measured. To obtain the writing current density in the terahertz experiments, and the corresponding Joule energy density, we performed independent numerical simulations and experimental calibration based on sample breakdown measurements.
These two alternative theoretical and experimental methods, which we now describe in more detail, provide quantitatively consistent results. Experimentally, we did not observe switching by the terahertz field pulses in structures without Au electrodes, which implies that this current density is below the switching threshold for picosecond pulses. B Numerical simulation of the electric field distribution in the device in the noncontact setup for a peak incident terahertz field of 10 5 V cm —1 polarized along the y axis.
C Same as B in the contact setup for a voltage of 7 V applied between the top and bottom Au contacts. D Ratio of the electric fields in B and C. We observed switching in devices with Au electrodes that strongly modify the incident terahertz field in the CuMnAs cross region. This is confirmed by numerical simulations of the terahertz electric field distribution see Materials and Methods that also took the measured dielectric function of CuMnAs at 1-THz frequency as an input and whose results are plotted in Fig.
Here, we compare, side by side, the electric field distribution in the cross structure for the typical peak incident terahertz field of 10 5 V cm —1 used in the noncontact picosecond pulse experiment Fig. For clarity, we also plot in Fig. We now proceed to the experimental calibration of the writing current and energy density in the terahertz field experiments. First, we show in Fig. The terahertz-induced switching signal plotted as a function of the incident terahertz peak field depends on the size of the cross Fig.
We again ascribe this observation to the Au electrodes. As shown previously by Novitsky et al. These charges, and the resulting voltage across the inner device, govern the current in our CuMnAs crosses.
At a given incident terahertz peak field, the current flowing through the three different crosses is comparable and, correspondingly, the current density scales up with decreasing width of the crosses.
This is consistent with our observation of increasing AMR signal with decreasing cross size Fig. When we accordingly rescale the data in Fig. Black star symbols and dashed line represent the limiting breakdown energy density. We point out that charges at the electrode apexes are also induced when a voltage is applied between opposite electrodes in the contact experiments.
Therefore, similar field distributions in the cross region are formed for the contact and noncontact field applications, differing only by a global scaling factor. This is confirmed by our simulations in Fig.
Blockchain: Hype, Reality, Opportunities
Jeroen Kok Cryptocurrency News 0. At the time, computers were big and clumsy and Intel was only a small player on a market dominated by IBM. This also happened in January and March In fact, it marked bitcoin phase transition? Think i should expand this. It's predictions should not be relied upon as an exact estimate.
Spotlight on Solana
It will also examine the accounting and regulatory, and privacy issues surrounding the space. Bitcoin , blockchain , initial coin offerings , ether , exchanges. Originally known for their reputation as havens for criminals and money launderers, cryptocurrencies have come a long way—with regards to both technological advancement and popularity. The technology underlying cryptocurrencies has been said to have powerful applications in various sectors ranging from healthcare to media. With that said, cryptocurrencies remain controversial. It will also examine the outstanding issues surrounding the space, including their evolving accounting and regulatory treatment. Cryptocurrencies are digital assets that use cryptography , an encryption technique, for security.
The Cost of Bitcoin Mining Has Never Really Increased
The browser version you are using is not recommended for this site. Please consider upgrading to the latest version of your browser by clicking one of the following links. In addition, Mobileye will enhance its China-related research and development capabilities, establishing a local data center and enhancing its local teams to support its rapidly growing China activities. More: Mobileye at CES Amnon Shashua, Mobileye president and chief executive officer.
The Last Word on Bitcoin's Energy Consumption
Within the next years, all-optical personal computers are put into widespread use, and classical-quantum computers are widely used in businesses, research centers, and other areas. Von Neumann structured electronic computers seem to have difficulty in meeting the growing demand for faster speed, lower power consumption, and smaller size. Researchers and many high-tech companies are beginning to explore the possibilities of new types of computers such as heterogeneous computing, the More-Moore route, the More-than-Moore route, photonic computing, and quantum computing. This paper discusses the current state of development of the cutting-edge new computers and the outlook on the future form of computers. A variety of new types of computing are racing together A variety of new computer development routes based on modern electronic computers are blossoming, forming a certain competition between each other and not excluding the creation of more routes.
We’re not prepared for the end of Moore’s Law
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