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Unlike dollar bills and coins, cryptocurrencies are not issued or backed by the U. The lack of a physical token to count and hold may confuse some. Rather, Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are a form of digital currency used in electronic payment transactions—no coins, paper money or banks are involved; there are zero to minimal transaction fees; transactions are fast and not bound by geography; and, similar to using cash, transactions are anonymous. Digital currencies are stored in digital wallets, which are software or apps installed by users on their computer or mobile device.
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- Blockchain & Cryptocurrency Laws and Regulations 2022 | USA
- ESG and Cryptocurrency: Considerations for Market Participants
- Blockchain and IP Law: A Match made in Crypto Heaven?
- Nvidia limits crypto-mining on new graphics card
- Pipeline Investigation Upends Idea That Bitcoin Is Untraceable
- Miami pushes Bitcoin with proposal to pay workers in crypto
Blockchain & Cryptocurrency Laws and Regulations 2022 | USA
Since its inception in , the grand ambition of the Bitcoin project has been to support direct monetary transactions among a network of peers, by creating a decentralised payment system that does not rely on any intermediaries. Its goal is to eliminate the need for trusted third parties, particularly central banks and governmental institutions, which are prone to corruption. Recently, the community of developers, investors and users of Bitcoin has experienced what can be regarded as an important governance crisis — a situation whereby diverging interests have run the risk of putting the whole project in jeopardy.
This governance crisis is revealing of the limitations of excessive reliance on technological tools to solve issues of social coordination and economic exchange. Taking the Bitcoin project as a case study, we argue that online peer-to-peer communities involve inherently political dimensions, which cannot be dealt with purely on the basis of protocols and algorithms.
The first part of this paper exposes the specificities of Bitcoin, presents its underlying political economy, and traces the short history of the project from its inception to the crisis.
The second part analyses the governance structure of Bitcoin, which can be understood as a two-layered construct: an infrastructure seeking to govern user behaviour via a decentralised, peer-to-peer network on the one hand, and an open source community of developers designing and architecting this infrastructure on the other.
We explore the challenges faced at both levels, the solutions adopted to ensure the sustainability of the system, and the unacknowledged power structures they involve.
In a third part, we expose the invisible politics of Bitcoin, with regard to both the implicit assumptions embedded in the technology and the highly centralised and largely undemocratic development process it relies on. We conclude that the overall system displays a highly technocratic power structure, insofar as it is built on automated technical rules designed by a minority of experts with only limited accountability for their decisions.
Finally, drawing on the wider framework of internet governance research and practice, we argue that some form of social institution may be needed to ensure accountability and to preserve the legitimacy of the system as a whole — rather than relying on technology alone.
Historically, money has taken many different forms. Far from being an exclusively economic tool, money is closely associated with social and political systems as a whole — which Nigel Dodd refers to as the social life of money Dodd In the wake of economic crises in particular, it is not uncommon to witness the emergence of alternative money or exchange frameworks aimed at establishing different social relations between individuals — more egalitarian, or less prone to accumulation and speculation North, Since it first appeared in , the decentralised cryptocurrency Bitcoin has raised high hopes for its potential to reshuffle not only the institutions of banking and finance, but also more generally power relations within society.
The potential consequences of this innovation, however, are profoundly ambivalent. On the other hand, it has also been framed as a solution for greater social justice, by undermining oligopolistic and anti-democratic arrangements between big capital and governments, which are seen to favour economic crises and inequalities.
Its implicit political project can therefore be understood as effectively getting rid of politics by relying on technology.
More generally, distributed networks have long been associated with a redistribution of power relations, due to the elimination of single points of control. The idea was that information could flow through multiple and unfiltered channels, thus circumventing any attempts at controlling or censoring it, and providing a basis for more egalitarian social relations as well as stronger privacy.
In practice however, it became clear that network design is much more complex and that additional software, protocols and hardware, at various layers of the network, could and did provide alternate forms of re-centralisation and control and that, moreover, the internet was not structurally immune to other modes of intervention such as law and regulation Benkler, Kahn In particular, such ideas were strongly advocated starting from the late s by an informal collective of hackers, mathematicians, computer scientists and activists known as cypherpunks , who saw strong cryptography as a means of achieving greater privacy and security of interpersonal communications, especially in the face of perceived excesses and abuses on the part of governmental authorities.
Yet cryptography is not only useful to protect the privacy of communications; it can also serve as a means to promote further decentralisation and disintermediation when combined with a peer-to-peer architecture. In , a pseudonymous entity named Satoshi Nakamoto released a white paper on the Cryptography Mailing list metzdowd.
One year later, a first implementation of the ideas defined in the white paper was released and the Bitcoin network was born. It introduces its own native currency or unit of account with a fixed supply — and whose issuance is regulated, only and exclusively, by technological means. The Bitcoin network can therefore be used to replace at least some of the key functions played by central banks and other financial institutions in modern societies: the issuance of money on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the fiduciary functions of banks and other centralised clearing houses.
Supported by many self-proclaimed libertarians, Bitcoin is often presented as an alternative monetary system, capable of bypassing most of the state-backed financial institutions — with all of their shortcomings and vested interests which have become so obvious in the light of the financial crisis of A certain number of bitcoins are generated, on average, every ten minutes and assigned as a reward to those who lend their computational resources to the Bitcoin network in order to both operate and secure the network.
In this sense, Bitcoin can be said to mimic the characteristics of gold. Just as gold cannot be created out of thin air, but rather needs to be extracted from the earth through mining , Bitcoin also requires a particular kind of computational effort — also known as mining — in order for the network protocol to generate new bitcoins and just as gold progressively becomes harder to find as the stock gets depleted over, also the amount of bitcoins generated through mining decreases over time.
The establishment and maintenance of a currency has traditionally been regarded as a key prerogative of the State, as well as a central institution of democratic societies. Controlling the money supply, by different means, is one of the main instruments that can be leveraged in order to shape the economy, both domestically and in the context of international trade.
Yet, regardless of whether one believes that the State has the right or duty to intervene in order to regulate the market economy, monetary policies have sometimes been instrumentalised by certain governments using inflation as a means to finance government spending e.
Perhaps most critical is the fact that, with the introduction of fractional-reserve banking, commercial banks acquired the ability to temporarily increase the money supply by giving out loans which are not backed up by actual funds Ferguson, Although there have been many attempts at establishing alternative currencies, and cryptocurrencies have also been debated for a long time, the creation of the Bitcoin network was in large part motivated in response to the social and cultural contingencies that emerged during the global financial crisis of As explicitly stated by Satoshi Nakamoto in various blog posts and forums, Bitcoin aimed at eradicating corruption from the realm of currency issuance and exchange.
Given that governments and central banks could no longer be trusted to secure the value of fiat currency and other financial instruments, Bitcoin was designed to operate as a trustless technology, which only relies on maths and cryptography. To address this issue, Bitcoin has brought two fundamental innovations, which, together, provide for the self-governability and self-sustainability of the network.
The first innovation is the blockchain , which relies on public-private key encryption and hashing algorithms to create a decentralised, append-only and tamper-proof database. The second innovation is Proof-of-Work , a decentralised consensus protocol using cryptography and economic incentives to encourage people to operate and simultaneously secure the network.
Accordingly, the Bitcoin protocol represents an elegant, but purely technical solution to the issue of social trust — which is normally resolved by relying on trusted authorities and centralised intermediaries. With the blockchain, to the extent that trust is delegated to the technology, individuals who do not know and therefore do not necessarily trust each other, can now transact with one another on a peer-to-peer basis, without the need for any intermediary.
Hence Bitcoin uses cryptography not as a way to preserve the secrecy of transactions, but rather in order to create a trustless infrastructure for financial transactions. In this context, cryptography is merely used as a discrete notational system DuPont, designed to promote the autonomy of the system, which can operate independently of any centralised third party 5.
It relies on simple cryptographic primitives or building blocks SHA hash functions and public-key cryptography to resolve, in a decentralised manner, the double-spending problem 6 found in many virtual currencies. The scheme used by Bitcoin Proof-of-Work relies on a peer-to-peer network of validators or miners who commit their computational resources hashing power to the network in order to record all valid transactions into a decentralised public ledger a.
All valid transactions are recorded into a block, which incorporates a reference or hash to the previous block — so that any attempt at tampering with the order or the content of any past transaction will always and necessarily result in an apparent discontinuity in the chain of blocks.
By combining a variety of existing technologies with basic cryptographic primitives, Bitcoin has created a system that is provably secure, practically incorruptible and probabilistically unattackable 7 — all this, without resorting to any centralised authority in charge of policing the network.
Bitcoin relies on a fully open and decentralised network, designed in such a way that anyone is free to use the network and contribute to it, without the need for any kind of previous identification. Yet, contrary to popular belief, Bitcoin is neither anonymous nor privacy-friendly. Quite the contrary, anyone with a copy of the blockchain can see the history of all Bitcoin transactions. Decentralised verification requires, indeed, that every transaction be made available for validation to all nodes in the network and that every transaction ever done on the Bitcoin network can be traced back to its origin.
The self- regulation of the overall system is primarily achieved through a system relying on perfect information the blockchain , combined with a consensus protocol and incentives mechanism Proof-of-work , to govern the mutually adjusting interests of all involved actors. Other dimensions of social trust and coordination such as loyalty, coercion, etc.
The history of Bitcoin — albeit very short — consists of a very intense series of events, which have led to the decentralised cryptocurrency becoming one of the most widely used forms of digital cash. The story began in October , with the release of the Bitcoin white paper Nakamoto, a. In January , the Bitcoin software was published and the first block of the Bitcoin blockchain was created the so-called Genesis block with a release of 50 bitcoins.
Shortly after, the first Bitcoin transaction took place between Satoshi Nakamoto and Hal Finney — a well-known cryptographer and prominent figure of the cypherpunk movement in the s.
It is not until a few months later that Bitcoin finally acquired an equivalent value in fiat currency 9 and slowly made its way into the commercial realm, as it started being accepted by a small number of merchants. In the early days, Satoshi Nakamoto was actively contributing to the source code and collaborating with many of the early adopters. Yet, he was always very careful to never disclose any personal details, so as to maintain his identity secret.
To date, in spite of the various theories that have been put forward, 11 the real identity of Satoshi Nakamoto remains unknown. In a way, the pseudonymity of Satoshi Nakamoto perfectly mirrors that of his brainchild, Bitcoin — a technology designed to substitute technology for trust, thus rendering the identification of transacting parties unnecessary.
Over the next few months, Bitcoin adoption continued to grow, slowly but steadily. Yet, the real spike in popularity of Bitcoin was not due to increased adoption by commercial actors, but rather to the establishment in January of Silk Road — an online marketplace mostly used for the trading of illicit drugs relying on Tor and Bitcoin to preserve the anonymity of buyers and sellers.
Silk Road paved the way for Bitcoin to enter the mainstream, but also led many governmental agencies to raise several concerns that Bitcoin could be used to create black markets, evade taxation, facilitate money laundering and even support the financing of terrorist activities. In April , to the surprise of many, Satoshi Nakamoto announced on a public mailing list that he would no longer work on Bitcoin.
Yet, before doing so, he transferred control over the source code repository of the Bitcoin client to Gavin Andresen, one of the main contributors to the Bitcoin code. Andresen, however, did not want to become the sole leader of such a project, and thus granted control over the code to four other developers — Pieter Wuille, Wladimir van der Laan, Gregory Maxwell, and Jeff Garzik.
Those entrusted with these administration rights for the development of the Bitcoin project became known as the core developers. As the popularity of Bitcoin continued to grow, so did the commercial opportunities and regulatory concerns.
However, with the exit of Satoshi Nakamoto, Bitcoin was left without any leading figure or institution that could speak on its behalf. This is what justified the creation, in September , of the Bitcoin Foundation — an American lobbying group focused on standardising, protecting and promoting Bitcoin. With a board comprising some of the biggest names in the Bitcoin space including Gavin Andresen himself , the Bitcoin Foundation was intended to do for Bitcoin what the Linux Foundation had done for open source software: paying developers to work full-time on the project, establishing best practices and, most importantly, bringing legitimacy and building trust in the Bitcoin ecosystem.
And yet, concerns were raised regarding the legitimacy of this self-selected group of individuals — many of whom had dubious connections or were allegedly related to specific Bitcoin scams 12 — to act as the referent and public face of Bitcoin.
Beyond the irony of having a decentralised virtual currency like Bitcoin being represented by a centralised profit-driven organisation, it soon became clear that the Bitcoin Foundation was actually unable to take on that role. Plagued by a series of financial and management issues, with some of its ex-board members under criminal investigation and most of its funds depleted, the Bitcoin Foundation has today lost much of its credibility.
But even the fall of the Bitcoin Foundation did not seem to significantly affect Bitcoin — probably because the Foundation was merely a facade that never had the ability to effectively control the virtual currency. Bitcoin adoption has continued to grow over the past few years, to eventually reach a market capitalisation of almost US 7 billion dollars.
Bitcoin still has no public face and no actual institution that can represent it. Yet, people continue to use it, to maintain its protocol, and to rely on its technical infrastructure for an increasing number of commercial and non-commercial operations.
And although a few Bitcoin-specific regulations have been enacted thus far see e. Bitcoin thus continues to operate, and continues to be regarded by many as an open source software platform that relies on a decentralised peer-to-peer network governed by distributed consensus.
Yet, if one looks at the underlying reasons why Bitcoin has been created in the first place, and the ways it has eventually been adopted by different categories of people, it becomes clear that the original conception of Bitcoin as a decentralised platform for financial disruption has progressively been compromised by the social and cultural context in which the technology operates. Following the first wave of adoption by the cypherpunk community, computer geeks and crypto-libertarians, a second larger wave of adoption followed the advent of Silk Road in But what actually brought Bitcoin to the mainstream were the new opportunities for speculation that emerged around the cryptocurrency, as investors from all over the world started to accumulate bitcoins either by purchasing them or by mining with the sole purpose of generating profits through speculation.
This trend is a clear reflection of the established social, economic and political order of a society driven by the capitalistic values of accumulation and profit maximisation.
But this is only one part of the problem. It took a simple — yet highly controversial — protocol issue to realise that, in spite of the open source nature of the Bitcoin platform, the governance of the platform itself is also highly centralised. To many outside observers, the contentious issue may seem surprisingly specific. As described earlier, the blockchain underpinning the Bitcoin network is composed of a series of blocks listing the totality of transactions which have been executed so far.
For a number of reasons mainly related to preserving the security and stability of the system, as well as to ensure easy adoption , the size of these blocks was initially set at 1 megabyte. In practice, however, this technical specification also sets a restriction on the number of transactions which the blockchain can handle in a particular time frame.
Hence, as the adoption of Bitcoin grew, along with the number of transactions to be processed, this arbitrary limitation which was originally perceived as being innocuous became the source of heated discussions — on several internet forums, blogs, and conferences — leading to an important dispute within the Bitcoin community Rizzo, Some argued that the one megabyte cap was effectively preventing Bitcoin from scaling and was thus a crucial impediment to its growth.
Others claimed that many workarounds could be found e. They insisted that maintaining the cap was necessary both for security reasons and for ideological reasons, and was a precondition to keeping the system more inclusive and decentralised.
ESG and Cryptocurrency: Considerations for Market Participants
Find centralized, trusted content and collaborate around the technologies you use most. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. Financial Modeling Prep is a free API that can be used to access various financial metrics such as stock prices and cryptocurrency data. The API documentation outlines how to access data through programming languages like Python. In particular, for cryptocurrency data:. For example, I can access all historical data of Bitcoin price, volume, low, high, etc. For example, using the Spyder variable explorer:.
Blockchain and IP Law: A Match made in Crypto Heaven?
Crime Science volume 7 , Article number: 18 Cite this article. Metrics details. Pump-and-dump schemes are fraudulent price manipulations through the spread of misinformation and have been around in economic settings since at least the s. With new technologies around cryptocurrency trading, the problem has intensified to a shorter time scale and broader scope. The scientific literature on cryptocurrency pump-and-dump schemes is scarce, and government regulation has not yet caught up, leaving cryptocurrencies particularly vulnerable to this type of market manipulation. This paper examines existing information on pump-and-dump schemes from classical economic literature, synthesises this with cryptocurrencies, and proposes criteria that can be used to define a cryptocurrency pump-and-dump. These pump-and-dump patterns exhibit anomalous behaviour; thus, techniques from anomaly detection research are utilised to locate points of anomalous trading activity in order to flag potential pump-and-dump activity. The findings suggest that there are some signals in the trading data that might help detect pump-and-dump schemes, and we demonstrate these in our detection system by examining several real-world cases.
Nvidia limits crypto-mining on new graphics card
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Pipeline Investigation Upends Idea That Bitcoin Is Untraceable
This is a guest post by Floating Point Group. The need and demand for financial infrastructure designed specifically for trading digital assets may not be obvious. Why do we need solutions for problems that have already been solved? The truth is that these assets and the widespread public interest surrounding them are entirely unprecedented. But there is still a long path ahead. One major pain point we are aiming to address for institutional traders involves liquidity or, more precisely, the lack thereof.
Miami pushes Bitcoin with proposal to pay workers in crypto
Quantitative Finance and Economics, , 1 4 : Article views PDF downloads Cited by Quantitative Finance and Economics , , 1 4 : Quantitative Finance and Economics , Volume 1 , Issue 4 : Previous Article Next Article. Research article Special Issues. Download PDF.
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